Instructional Design & Learning Theories

Tram Nguyen
Aug 28, 2018
4 min read

Updated: Sep 8

For a very long time, I’ve tried to understand learning theories. I know that only a good understanding of learning theories can help me create training that meets the requirements of the target audience and the situation.

Learning theory is defined as conceptual frameworks that describe how information is absorbed, processed, and retained in learners’ minds. And here’s my summary of the learning theories and their implication for instructional design today:

Behaviourism

Behaviourist learning theory mainly focuses on observable changes in behaviour.

It focuses on new behaviour being repeated until it becomes automatic.
Learners depend on instructors for the acquisition of new knowledge.

Therefore, the assumptions of behaviourist learning theory take into account three criteria:

Instructional tasks focus on behavioural responses.
Learning occurs through the influence of environmental stimuli.
Learning occurs through the process of repetition or rehearsal of behaviour.

There are core theories that stem from behaviourism:

Classical Conditioning – Ivan Pavlov
Operant Conditioning – B.F. Skinner

Classical Conditioning

The theory of classical conditioning was introduced by Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov. Classical conditioning is a learning process in which an association is made between two stimuli. The two stimuli are linked to produce desired behaviour—in other words, a newly learned response.

Stimulus and Response Items of Pavlov's Experiment

Operant Conditioning

The term operant conditioning was introduced by behaviourist B.F. Skinner. This theory refers to the learning process in which responses are controlled by consequences. The likelihood of a certain response occurring is either increased or decreased depending on whether that response is reinforced or punished. A reinforcement increases a behaviour, while punishment decreases a behaviour.

Application in Instructional Design

Instructional design based on a behaviourist approach starts with the assumption that learning is objective—meaning there is only one correct answer to give or one approach to follow. Facts or standardized procedures are examples of objective learning.

For example, in an online course that requires learners to memorize the procedures for setting a table for four, the instructional strategies based on behaviourist learning theory are as follows:

Learning outcomes test how well learners can acquire information.
Practice opportunities are provided using a simple game-based approach.
Appropriate feedback is given.

It is important to note that behaviourism is not an appropriate approach for e-learning activities that require learners to develop higher-order skills such as decision-making or problem-solving through the analysis of information presented.

Cognitivism

Cognitivism is based on the thought processes behind behaviour.

Cognitive learning theory places the focus on the individual.
Cognitivists define learning as “involving the reorganization of experiences in order to make sense of stimuli from the environment” and “an internal and active mental process, which develops in a learner increased mental capacity and skills in order to learn better” [1].

Information Processing Theory

Information processing theory further supports cognitive learning theory. The way learners process information is similar to the way a computer processes information. There are three stages in this model: input first enters a sensory register, then is processed in short-term memory, and finally transferred to long-term memory for storage and retrieval.

Sensory register: receives input from the senses lasting less than a second to a few seconds, then disappears through decay or replacement.
Short-term memory: important or interesting sensory input is transferred from the sensory register to short-term memory. Retention lasts about 20 seconds, but can be extended with rehearsal. Capacity is about 7 ± 2 items, which can be increased by chunking material into meaningful parts.
Long-term memory: stores information transferred from short-term memory for long-term use. Capacity is unlimited. Some material is forced into long-term memory by rote memorization, but deeper processing—such as linking old and new information—results in better retention [2].

Application in Instructional Design

Cognitive science influences instructional design through the use of advance organizers, mnemonic devices, chunking, and careful sequencing of instructional materials from simple to complex [1].

For example, in an online course where two sets of target learners with varied knowledge levels undergo the same training:

A pre-test is used to define learning paths for the two learner profiles.
Learners are allowed to explore topics relevant to their knowledge levels.
Information flow is determined by existing skill sets, and content is chunked into meaningful lessons.

Constructivism

Constructivism is a theory of learning in which learners use prior understanding together with current experiences to construct, elaborate, or restructure their knowledge. In other words, constructivism focuses on preparing learners to problem-solve in ambiguous situations.

The assumptions of Constructivism (Merrill, 1991, in Smorgansbord, 1997):

Knowledge is constructed from experience.
Learning is a personal interpretation of the world.
Learning is an active process in which meaning is developed on the basis of experience.
Learning should be situated in realistic settings; testing should be integrated with the task and not treated as a separate activity.

Application in Instructional Design

Constructivism promotes open-ended learning experiences where the methods and results of learning are not easily measured and may differ for each learner [2].

Jonassen [2] lists the following implications of constructivism for instructional design:

Provide multiple representations of reality to avoid oversimplification.
Present authentic, contextualized tasks.
Provide real-world, case-based learning environments rather than predetermined instructional sequences.
Foster reflective practice.

For example, in an online course for managers on improving leadership skills:

A real-life perspective is provided through the use of a manager character.
A problem is created, and the character is placed in real-life situations where they must address issues from different perspectives.
Practical tips and guidelines are provided at the end of the lesson to help learners apply their learning in the workplace.